Anthropology 3 - Man's Tripartite or Bipartite Nature

In the a previous post, I described the psyche and its parts or faculties. However, we are not isolated psyches, so we must discuss how our psyche relates to the rest of us. If we stopped our study here at what science and philosophy, logic, and apologetics, have to say, we would come up with a pretty standard Cartesian Dualism model of human nature of a soul in a body. This is what many Christians do, however, that is developed from Western philosophy, not Christianity, so it is, at best, incomplete.

How has anything in study of the psyche taught us about salvation, or our relationship with God, or anything spiritual? What do Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Descartes, Freud, Jung, and Dr. Schwarz have in common?  They are not Christian. Most Christians who hold to this simple Cartesian Dualism view must think they can choose to believe in God by their reason, or do something for their salvation, because they see no other alternative. Indeed, taking this secular view of the soul, there is no real alternative. However, even though the soul and its faculties are gifts from God, they are also corrupt in our fallen state. Our souls are totally depraved. They cannot understand anything spiritual, nor can they lead us to God. How can we have saving faith? Luther and other reformers explained how our saving faith has three parts.

1.)   Notitia (A Notion of): To have faith in something, you have to know about it. Knowledge in humans comes from the psyche (e.g. I intellectually understand what the Bible says).

2.)   Assensus (Agreement): To have faith in something, you have to not only know about it, but believe that it is true. This belief is also in the psyche. (e.g. I believe that the God of the Bible exists). These first two (Notitia and Assensus) correspond to Platos theory of Knowledge consisting of justified true belief. This kind of believe in God is necessary, but it is not sufficient for salvation.

“You believe that God is one; you do well. Even the demons believe-and shudder!” -James 2:19

3.)   Fiducia (Trust): The last part of faith is putting your trust in and committing to God. This, we have learned, the psyche cannot do in its fallen state, so we cannot do in our fallen state.

Our psyches are not spiritual, so then, something must be missing from the dualistic model of human nature. Let’s look to scripture to find out what it is.

“Now may the God of peace himself sanctify you completely (wholly, totally, in every way), and may your whole (integer, entire, every part) spirit (pneuma) and soul (psyche) and body (soma) be kept blameless at the coming of our Lord Jesus Christ.” -1 Thessalonians 5:23

Wait, there is a difference between the soul and the spirit?

“For the word of God is living and active, sharper than any two-edged sword, piercing to the division of soul (psyche) and of spirit (pneuma), of joints and of marrow, and discerning the thoughts and intentions of the heart.” -Hebrews 4:12

Is this distinction mentioned in other places in the Bible?

But Hannah answered, “No, my lord, I am a woman troubled in spirit. I have drunk neither wine nor strong drink, but I have been pouring out my soul before the Lord.” -1 Samuel 1:15

“Therefore I will not restrain my mouth; I will speak in the anguish of my spirit; I will complain in the bitterness of my soul.” -Job 7:11

“My soul yearns for you in the night; my spirit within me earnestly seeks you.” -Isaiah 26:9

 “And Mary said, ‘My soul magnifies the Lord, and my spirit rejoices in God my Savior…’” -Luke 1:46-47

And many other places that we will see as we continue. All of these authors are NOT just being redundant. They are not using different words for the same thing. They are discussing their non-physical reactions to their situations and to God fully by describing both spirit and soul. In fact, Luther, in his commentary of the Magnificat in Luke, says about these verses:

“The nature of man consists of the three parts--spirit, soul, and body.…To these [first] two parts of man [the soul and spirit] the Scriptures ascribe many things, such as wisdom and knowledge--wisdom to the spirit, knowledge to the soul…. Indeed, reason is the light of this dwelling (the soul); and unless the spirit, which is lighted with the brighter light of faith, controls this light of reason it cannot but be in error. For it is too feeble to deal with things divine.” -Martin Luther, Commentary on Luke

So then, the human spirit is what we were missing in our model, which brings wisdom and God’s light to the soul. Our spirit is the part of us that is spiritual that can deal with things divine. We need to have a spirit to have wisdom and a saving faith. Here are other verses that discuss the difference between knowledge and wisdom.

Whoever trusts in his own mind is a fool, but he who walks in wisdom will be delivered.” -Proverbs 28:26

For to one is given through the Spirit the utterance of wisdom, and to another the utterance of knowledge according to the same Spirit.” -1 Corinthians 12:7-9

Herman Sasse, in Jesus Christ is Lord: The Church’s Original Confession (1931), says,

"Spirit is a third thing in man in addition to body and soul… a divine kernel dwelling within man…. All psychology, unless it is content with a superficial analysis of the human soul, comes upon this inexplicable factor in man, a realm where things happen which psychological explanations fail to reach."

Luther also clearly believed and taught the “tripartite”, or three-part nature of man, although he still held to substance duality (that is that man is made of physical and non-physical substances). He also said that since God is a triune God, it makes sense that the pinnacle of this creation, a being created in His own image, would also have a triune nature.

I personally agree with Luther and Sasse in the tripartite model of man, based on the scripture and his reasoning above, but not everyone does. C.F.W. Walther, first president of the LCMS, and other theologians that have a proper view of salvation, do not hold to a tripartite view of man. They still believe that the pneuma is separate from the psyche, but that the pneuma is the inner most, spiritual essence of the “spiritual soul.” The psyche, then is still the intersection of the spiritual and physical, just like in the tripartite model, but it is the outer and non-spiritual essence of the “spiritual soul.”

“God’s image, they say, still shines now in the spiritual essence of our soul.” -C.F.W. Walther in a sermon in 1841

This view is not the same as Cartesian Dualism, but is referred to as a bipartite model of the nature of man. In this model the “spiritual soul” is a Holon, which is defined as simultaneously a whole and a part, made up of things that are simultaneously wholes and parts (namely, the psyche and the pneuma). Now, it is apparent, why we will use the Greek words.

Either way, man still has a substance duality (physical and non-physical components) and man still consists of a pneuma in a psyche in a soma. The LCMS CTCR has decided that scripturally, there is not enough information to decide which model is correct and functionally there is no difference in these models. Therefore, believing one or the other is not a matter of salvation and it is regarded by the LCMS as an open question.

“The Biblical language concerning man's soul does not provide the basis for constructing a clear picture of the nature of man's being…. The Scriptures describe man's being in a variety of ways. For example, they describe him as consisting of body and soul; of spirit, soul, and body; and as a unitary being. Since all these insights are Scriptural, they need to be affirmed and defended, as they have been throughout the history of the church.” -The Commission on Theology and Church Relations of the LCMS, in their “Statement on Death, Resurrection and Immortality”

Anthropology 2 - What is the Soul (Psyche)?

I discussed in the last post reasons to believe that we have souls, and in this post I will discuss what the soul is and what it does. Plato, Freud and the Bible all describe three parallel and corresponding parts and functions of the soul, which we will describe here. Terminology and different languages can become confusing from this point onward, so we will from here on out, use the Greek word for soul, which is psyche, for these discussions.

Nous (Reason/the “Mind”)

Freud’s ego, is intellect, understanding, and reason, and is associated with Plato’s idea of the “mind”, or nous in Greek.

“So he [Paul] reasoned in the synagogue with the Jews and the devout persons, and in the marketplace every day with those who happened to be there.” -Acts 17:17

“But the wisdom from above is first pure, then peaceable, gentle, open to reason, full of mercy and good fruits, impartial and sincere.” -James 3:17

“I believe that God has made me and all creatures. He has given me my body and soul, eyes, ears, and all my limbs, my reason, and all my senses, and still preserves them.” -Martin Luther in his explanation of the first article of the Apostles Creed

However, one cannot trust in reason above the Bible. Reason cannot understand spiritual things.

“There is a way that seems right to a man, but its end is the way to death.” -Proverbs 14:12

“Behold, I go forward, but he is not there, and backward, but I do not perceive him; on the left hand when he is working, I do not behold him; he turns to the right hand, but I do not see him. But he knows the way that I take; when he has tried me, I shall come out as gold. My foot has held fast to his steps; I have kept his way and have not turned aside. I have not departed from the commandment of his lips; I have treasured the words of his mouth more than my portion of food.” -Job 23:8-12

“I believe that I cannot by my own reason or strength believe in Jesus Christ, my Lord, or come to Him.” -Martin Luther in his explanation of the third article of the Apostles Creed

“Reason is a whore, the greatest enemy that faith has; it never comes to the aid of spiritual things, but more frequently than not struggles against the divine Word, treating with contempt all that emanates from God.” -Martin Luther

“It is [the soul's] nature to comprehend not incomprehensible things but such things the reason can know and understand.” -Martin Luther, Commentary on Luke

So, reason is a gift from God that is a part of our psyche and it can be useful. However, it does not understand spiritual things and like all human faculties is in a fallen state so it can be, and often is, perverted to be used sinfully.

“Unless I am convinced by the testimony of the Holy Scriptures or by evident reason-for I can believe neither pope nor councils alone, as it is clear that they have erred repeatedly and contradicted themselves-I consider myself convicted by the testimony of Holy Scripture, which is my basis; my conscience is captive to the Word of God. Thus I cannot and will not recant, because acting against one's conscience is neither safe nor sound. God help me. Amen.” -Martin Luther, in his “Here I Stand” speech

Thymos (Conscience)

Freud’s super-ego is the internalization of societal norms, or we would say the conscience. It is also associated with the Heart and Plato’s seat of emotions, or Thymos in Greek. From the Bible, we learn that our conscience is God’s law written on our hearts.

“For when Gentiles, who do not have the law, by nature do what the law requires, they are a law to themselves, even though they do not have the law. They show that the work of the law is written on their hearts, while their conscience also bears witness, and their conflicting thoughts accuse or even excuse them.” -Romans 2:14-15

“There comes a time when one must take a position that is neither safe, nor politic, nor popular, but he must take it because his conscience tells him it is right....” -Martin Luther

Luther clearly teaches here that if you are think what you are doing is a sin, then you are sinning, whether or not that act, actually is a sin. That is, if you think something is against God’s will and do it, then your motivation is to do something against God’s will. This is clearly stated in the Bible, in the case of the one who has a weak conscience.

“Food will not commend us to God. We are no worse off if we do not eat, and no better off if we do. But take care that this right of yours does not somehow become a stumbling block to the weak. For if anyone sees you who have knowledge eating in an idol's temple, will he not be encouraged, if his conscience is weak, to eat food offered to idols? And so by your knowledge this weak person is destroyed, the brother for whom Christ died. Thus, sinning against your brothers and wounding their conscience when it is weak, you sin against Christ. Therefore, if food makes my brother stumble, I will never eat meat, lest I make my brother stumble.” -1 Corinthians 8:8-13

This verse also states, that even if we have a clear conscience and the act we are doing is not sinful in and of itself, we may still be sinning, as in the case of making a brother stumble.

Next, the Bible clearly states that conscience is the law written on the hearts of all men, so that all have a concept of right from wrong, but the conscience still can’t understand spiritual things and can be defiled.

“For when Gentiles, who do not have the law, by nature do what the law requires, they are a law to themselves, even though they do not have the law. They show that the work of the law is written on their hearts, while their conscience also bears witness, and their conflicting thoughts accuse or even excuse them.” -Romans 2:14-15

Titus tells us that the mind (or reason) and conscience are separate, and reiterate that they are both subject to our fallen nature.

“To the pure, all things are pure, but to the defiled and unbelieving, nothing is pure; but both their minds and their consciences are defiled.” -Titus 1:15

So, our conscience is a gift from God that resides in our psyche and it can be useful. However, like all human faculties, is in a fallen state so it can be, and often is, perverted.

Eros (Instinct/Intuition)

Freud’s id is basic instinct and desires. This is associated with Plato’s part of the psyche that drives appetites, or the Eros, in Greek. In the Bible, and other ancient cultures, it was associated with the bowels, loins, or stomach. We still do today. “Deep down in your guts.” The Latin word for bowels is viscera, which is where we get the term visceral reaction, meaning primal, animal, or instinctual.

“But these people blaspheme all that they do not understand, and they are destroyed by all that they, like unreasoning animals, understand instinctively.” -2 Peter 2:12

That verse also shows that our instincts are in a fallen and corrupted state. The next verses show the loins are associated with the psyche, but separate from the heart.

“Desolate! Desolation and ruin! Hearts melt and knees tremble; anguish is in all loins; all faces grow pale!” -Nahum 2:10

“Look, O Lord, for I am in distress; my stomach churns; my heart is wrung within me, because I have been very rebellious. In the street the sword bereaves; in the house it is like death.” -Lamentations 1:20

So, we have instincts, which are separate from the part of us that reasons. Instincts are also separate from our conscience.

“‘Isn't what you call the Moral Law simply our herd instinct and hasn't it been developed just like all our other instincts?' Now I do not deny that we may have a herd instinct: but that is not what I mean by the Moral Law. We all know what it feels like to be prompted by instinct - by mother love, or sexual instinct, or the instinct for food. It means that you feel a strong want or desire to act in a certain way. And, of course, we sometimes do feel just that sort of desire to help another person: and no doubt that desire is due to the herd instinct. But feeling a desire to help is quite different from feeling that you ought to help whether you want to or not. Supposing you hear a cry for help from a man in danger. You will probably feel two desires - one desire to give help (due to your herd instinct), the other a desire to keep out of danger (due to the instinct for self-preservation). But you will find inside you, in addition to these two impulses, a third thing which tells you that you ought to follow the impulse to help, and suppress the impulse to run away. Now this thing that judges between two instincts, that decides which should be encouraged, cannot itself be either of them.

“Another way of seeing that the Moral Law is not simply one of our instincts is this. If two instincts are in conflict, and there is nothing in a creature's mind except those two instincts, obviously the stronger of the two must win. But at those moments when we are most conscious of the Moral Law, it usually seems to be telling us to side with the weaker of the two impulses. You probably want to be safe much more than you want to help the man who is drowning: but the Moral Law tells you to help him all the same. And surely it often tells us to try to make the right impulse stronger than it naturally is? I mean, we often feel it our duty to stimulate the herd instinct, by waking up our imaginations and arousing our pity and so on, so as to get up enough steam for doing the right thing. But clearly we are not acting from instinct when we set about making an instinct stronger than it is. The thing that says to you, 'Your herd instinct is asleep. Wake it up,' cannot itself be the herd instinct.” -C.S. Lewis, Mere Christianity

Anthropology 1 - I'm a Soul, Man

Here I am summarizing reasons to believe in the immaterial human soul, using the justifications from the Theory of Knowledge.

A.)  External

    1.) Revelation

I just picked one Old Testament and a New Testament verse, but there are many more. In fact the words for soul in the Bible are used more than a thousand times. This alone is enough justification for our faith that a soul exists, but we will examine the other reasons as well, to learn more about the soul.

“Gracious words are like a honeycomb, sweetness to the soul and health to the body.” -Proverbs 16:24

“And do not fear those who kill the body but cannot kill the soul. Rather fear him who can destroy both soul and body in hell.” -Matthew 10:28

    2.) Authority/Experts

To the ancient Greek philosophers (in the inter-Testamental Period – that is between the Old and New Testament), the soul (psyche) was considered to be the incorporeal, or non-physical, eternal occupant of our being, that animates us, and makes us alive. Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle write extensively on the subject. Their view became has been a dominant theory of western philosophy for the last ~2500 years.

In 1641, French philosopher and mathematician René Descartes coined the term dualism, meaning people consisted of a physical body and non-physical or metaphysical “mind”. Descartes’ contemporary, Blaise Pascale, stated "I cannot forgive Descartes; in all his philosophy, Descartes did his best to dispense with God.” Nonetheless, Christians adopted this terminology and philosophy of dualism, calling Descartes’ mind, the soul, or psyche in Greek, and using it as justification for their faith.

In 1923, German psychoanalyst, and atheist, Sigmund Freud, came up with his model of the psyche (the Greek word for soul) consisting of the ego, the super-ego, and the id. This is still a dominant theory of psychology today (the word psychology actually means the study of the soul). He also used the word seele (German for soul), interchangeably with psyche (Greek for soul). He believed, however, that it was a manifestation of physical processes and, not immortal. His contemporary, Karl Jung (also not a Christian), thought that materialism could not account for they psyche and that Freud only said that because he did not want to open the door to the idea of a deity. Jung insisted that there was a spiritual, non-physical, aspect to people, as well as a material.

    3.) Generally Accepted (Consensus Gentium)

Most cultures in the world, throughout the history of the world have also believed in it, even the non-Christians philosophers, mathematicians, and psychologists mentioned above. The idea that there might not be a soul was not even entertained in the ancient world. It is only recently in human history that people have begun denying it, and only in an attempt to take away evidence for God, not because there is a good reason to do so.

B.)  Internal

    4.) Consistent with Current Beliefs

Obviously…

    5.) Instincts/ Intuition/ Self-Awareness

The fact that so many (almost everyone, everywhere) throughout history has believed it, must make it pretty instinctual. People know they have a soul. Descartes is famous for his saying, “I think, therefore I am” and no one disagreed with him. When he was talking about “I”, he was referring to his non-physical “mind” that made him who he was, what we would call the soul today. It is intuitively obvious.

    6.) Memory

This justification is not really applicable to our discussion of the soul, since I don’t remember when I received my soul (which was at conception).

C.)  Self-Evident

    7.) Faith

Of course, the idea of a soul is integral to our faith.

    8.) Logic

See previous post on the apologetics approach to evidence for the soul.

    9.) Sense Perceptions (Observations)

Jeffery Schwartz, a neuroscientist at UCLA, among many other scientist, have proven using brain scans (PET and Functional MRIs), that mental exercises as simple as people intentionally challenging their thoughts, or their OCD, resulted in brain chemistry changing. Therefore, the brain chemistry was and “effect” of their thinking and their wills, not a “cause” of the “mind”. A physical process did not cause them to think. Thinking caused a physical process. From this study, and others like it, Dr. Schwartz, even though he is an atheist, believes that there must be “conscience experience” that is non-physical to explain his results. He therefore believes in substance dualism. Most other scientists in this field agree, because they can explain their results no other way. This is based on scientific method of observation and experimentation along with choosing the answer that explains the observables most accurately.

Book Review/Summary - The Tripartite Nature of Man (John Heard)

This is a very interesting book from 1868 about religious anthropology and psychology. The basic premise of this book is that man consists of three distinct parts (tripartite), which are the spirit, the soul, and the body. This is a very thorough look into the topic that is well thought out, documented, and cited. Unfortunately, not everything in the book is Biblical accurate or in line with wound theology. However, there are many great things in this book and about this book, but it is not an easy read. He claims to answer two so called open questions, the first about man's nature and the second about the traducianism vs. creationism question.

This whole treatise hinges on the distinction of spirit and soul. Heard first wants to establish a historical precedence for this idea by stating that Irenaeus, Justin Martyr, Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Didymus of Alexandria, Gregory of Nyssa, and Basil of Caesarea all noted the distinction of spirit and soul, although exactly what the distinction is and what it meant was somewhat debated. Augustine purposefully avoided the topic, claiming that it had no practical implications for faith and could easily lead to heresy. Heard also makes the case that many Greek philosophers and (philosophers and psychologist since then), have understood that there is a distinction, but without the Bible as a guide are unable to discern what it exactly is. Lastly, he shows how Martin Luther and other reformers also affirmed the tripartite nature of man, although its acceptance was not unanimous. The diagram below is a very helpful visual representative of Heard's model of man. Future posts will delve deeper into anthropology, psychology, and spirit vs. the soul.

Open Questions

From CFW Walther's Forward for Volume XIV of "Lehre und Wehre", (Teach and Defend), 1868:

"Open Questions. All doctrines revealed clearly and plainly in God's Word are, by virtue of the absolute authority of the divine Word, dogmatically fixed and binding on conscience, whether they have been symbolically defined or not. In God's church there is no justification for departing from clearly revealed Scripture truths, be their content fundamental or nonfundamental, important or apparently unimportant. Full agreement in all articles of faith constitutes the indispensable condition of church-fellowship. Persistent error in an article of faith always causes division. Full agreement in all nonfundamental doctrines is not attainable on earth, but should nevertheless be sought as goal. Those who knowingly, obstinately, and stubbornly contradict God's Word, even if only in subordinate points, thereby overthrow the organic foundation (of the faith) and must be excluded from church-fellowship."

Here is the list of "open questions" that I have found and compiled. We may never know the answers, but it sure can be fun to discuss these. Comment, thoughts options, any others?

1. In which day, or even season of the year was the world created?
2. On which day of creation week were the angels created?
3. When did the angels sin and fall away?
4. What was the sin by which some of the angels fell away from God?
5. How long were Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden before sinning?
6. Are there still, according to Gen 1:6, bodies of water above the firmament as well as under?
7. What was Cain's sin with regard to his offering?
8. What are the Behemoth and Leviathan 
9. On what day, in which year was Christ born?
10. Will the prophecy of "the man of lawlessness" in 2 Thessalonians 2:3 be fulfilled in the form of one individual man, or multiple men like the Antichrist?
11. Will the visible world be destroyed on Judgment Day according to its essence and substance, or only according to it characteristics and quality?
12. What will be the size/age of the bodies of those who died as children when they rise from the dead?
13. What is the authority of the antilogomena?
14. Does man have a tripartite or bipartite nature?
15. Is the soul transmitted to the child by the parents through natural propagation as flame from the flame (traducianism), or is each soul the result of a new creative act (creationism)?

I have some thought on some of these that I will attempt to get down in future posts.

Isaiah 2:6-22 - The Day of the Lord

Previous posts discussed how people want to do their own thing and disobey the authority of God. Isaiah tells us this is out of pride and that God will humble the proud.

v.6: The Israelites had broken the covenant by breaking the first commandment to have no other gods. They worshiped other gods, so God rejected them.

v.7: Even the king was not free. Everyone has a boss.  The specific riches mentioned were forbidden to the king (Dt 17:16-17) because they lead to failing to trust in God, and instead look to their accomplishments

v.8: The Israelites had broken the covenant by breaking the second commandment to have not make idols. This leads to worshiping what man has done, instead of worshiping God. This is pride.

v.9: Men, both great and small think it is below them to humble themselves before God, but the bow down to the work of their hands. Men will be humbled and brought low by God's punishment, when God does not forgive them.

v.10: During times of persecution, the Israelites hid in caves. This continued through into the Apocrypha. Those who do not fear God before punishment will fear him after his punishment. God will awaken the sleeping sinner, through judgement, if not through His Word.

v.11: Pride comes before the fall. God will humble the proud.

v.12: The day of the Lord's judgement was coming for the Israelites. So, too, the ultimate day of judgment is coming for us all.

v.13: Ceders are a symbol of Lebanon, so here they refer to Lebanon. Oaks represent strength and majesty.

v.14: Revelation 8:7 tells us when man fell, he took all of creation with him. Creation suffers along with man, and is very eager for Christ's return. Read Romans 8:18-21. There will be many natural disasters as part of God's judgments and God's creation will suffer as a result.

v.15: The tall structures are like the tower of babel. They are the source of man's pride, so they will be destroyed to show God's power and humble man.

v.16: Big ships that went a long way represents mans industry, strength, and accomplishments.

v.17: When man is completely humbled and has nowhere else to look to, God alone will be sought, exalted, and lifted up.

v.18: God will destroy the idols to show they are false.

v.19: Repeating vs. 10

v.20: Realizing that they cannot save themselves and seeing the true God they will reject their idols.

v.21: Like Adam and Eve they (and we) foolishly try to hide from God once sin is realized.

v.22: Pride is an attempt to be ones own god. Trust needs an object and it should not be man. We cannot even control our own life, but it and everything else is in God's hands.

Can't Decide If You Have Free Will?

Free Will happens to be one of my favorite topics. I actually can't believe it took me this long to get to it. Anyway, what is most important is unregenerate man's will toward God with regard to salvation. There is quite a spectrum of beliefs on this issue, so here is a handy summary of the different views that people who call themselves "Christians" take on that:

The Christian church throughout the ages (and in ecumenical councils) has condemned anything on the right half of that diagram as heresy. The next plot is breaking down the three on the left more.

However, man's will is in different states during different points, so here is a summary of these differences:

From Pastor Brian Wolfmuller

Bible Book Breakdown Blog

Can't keep track of all the different technical terms for the different parts of the Bible? Here's a quick reference guide that I came up with to help myself keep them all straight.

Bible “collection of books” – the Christian Scripture

Scripture “writing” – the Sacred writings of Christianity contained in the Bible

Canon “rule or list” – Authoritative, inspired, and divine (sola scriptura)

• Old Testament or Protocanon “Original or Earliest Canon” - Jewish Tanakh/Hebrew Bible, written by Moses (Sep 4)
• Torah “Instruction or Teaching”, Pentateuch, Law
• Genesis
• Exodus
• Leviticus
• Numbers
• Deuteronomy
• Prophets
• Major Prophets
• Joshua (Sep 1)
• Judges
• Samuel (Hannah - Sep 2, Samuel - Aug 20)
• 1 Samuel
• 2 Samuel
• Kings
• 1 Kings (David - Dec 29)
• 2 Kings (Elijah - Jul 20, Elisha - Jun 14)
• Isaiah (Jul 6)
• Jeremiah (Jun 26)
• Ezekiel (Jul 21)
• The Twelve – Minor Prophets
• Hosea
• Joel
• Amos
• Obadiah
• Jonah (Sep 22)
• Micah
• Nahum
• Habakkuk
• Zephaniah
• Zechariah
• Haggai
• Malachi
• Hagiographa “Sacred Writings” - Old Testament Books other than “Law” and “Prophets”
• Psalms
• Proverbs
• Job (May 9)
• Ruth
• Lamentations
• Song of Solomon
• Ecclesiastes
• Daniel (Dec 17)
• Esther (May 24)
• Chronicles
• 1 Chronicles
• 2 Chronicles
• Ezrah/Nehemiah
• Ezra
• Nehemiah
• Apocrypha “Hidden Things” - Intertestamental books that are not held equal to the scriptures, but are useful and good for reading.
• Deuterocanon “Belonging to the second canon” – Not Part of the Hebrew Bible – sometimes doubted, but accepted by some and not others
• Tobit
• Judith
• Additions to Esther
• Wisdom of Solomon
• Ecclesiasticus/Sirach/Wisdom of Jesus ben Sira
• Baruch
• The Letter of Jeremiah
• Additions to Daniel
• The Song of the Three Children
• The Prayer of Azariah
• The History of Susanna
• Bel and the Dragon
• 1 Maccabees
• 2 Maccabees
• Prayer of Manasseh
• Pseudepigrapha “Falsely Ascribed” - Intertestamental books that are not in the Bible in any way, but there are some references to them.
• 3 Maccabees
• 4 Maccabees
• 1 Enoch
• 2 Enoch
• Jubilees
•  New Testament

Homologoumena “Universally Accepted” or “recognized everywhere” - Universally accepted

• Gospels
• Synoptic Gospels
• Matthew (Sep 21)
• Mark (Apr 25)
• Luke (Oct 18)
• John (Dec 27)
• Acts
• Epistles
• Pauline Epistles (Jun 29)
• Romans
• 1 Corinthians
• 2 Corinthians
• Galatians
• Ephesians
• Philippians
• Colossians
• 1 Thessalonians
• 2 Thessalonians
• 1 Timothy (Jan 24)
• 2 Timothy
• Titus (Jan 26)
• Philemon (Feb 15)
• General Epistles
• 1 Peter
• 1 John

Antilegomena “Spoken Against” – Disputed writing/books, but accepted as canon

• Hebrews – the author is not definitely known
• James – Authors identity not completely certain, and the content was misunderstood
• 2 Peter – Likely written shortly before author’s death and had no definite addressees
• 2 John – Addressed to private persons and not accessible to larger circles
• 3 John – Addressed to private persons and not accessible to larger circles
• Jude – short and circumscribed message
• Revelation – because of its nature
• Notha “Spurious” – Not authentic canon
• The Epistles of Clement (Nov 23)
• Epistle of Barnabas (Jun 11)
• Acts of Paul
• Shepherd of Hermas
• Didache